Collagen is the major protein component of bone, cartilage, skin, and connective tissue in animals. Collagen in its native form is typically a rigid, rod-shaped molecule approximately 300 nm long and 1.5 nm in diameter. It is composed of three collagen polypeptides which form a tight triple helix. The collagen polypeptides are characterized by a long midsection having the repeating sequence -Gly-X-Y-, where X and Y are often proline or hydroxyproline, bounded at each end by the "telopeptide" regions, which constitute less than about 5% of the molecule. The telopeptide regions of the collagen chains are typically responsible for the crosslinking between chains, and for the immunogenicity of the protein. Collagen occurs in several "types", having differing physical properties. The most abundant types are Types I-III.
Collagen is typically isolated from natural sources, such as bovine hide, cartilage, or bones. Bones are usually dried, defatted, crushed, and demineralized to extract collagen, while hide and cartilage are usually minced and digested with proteolytic enzymes (other than collagenase). As collagen is resistant to most proteolytic enzymes, this procedure conveniently serves to remove most of the contaminating protein found with collagen.
Collagen may be denatured by boiling, which produces the familiar product gelatin.
Daniels et al, U.S. Pat. No. 3,949,073, disclosed the preparation of soluble collagen by dissolving tissue in aqueous acid, followed by enzymatic digestion. The resulting atelopeptide collagen is soluble, and substantially less immunogenic than unmodified collagen. It may be injected into suitable locations of a subject with a fibril-formation promoter (described as a polymerization promoter in the patent) to form fibrous collagen implants in situ, for augmenting hard or soft tissue. This material is now commercially available from Collagen Corporation (Palo Alto, Calif.) under the trademark Zyderm.RTM. collagen implant.
Luck et al, U.S. Pat. No. 4,488,911, disclosed a method for preparing collagen in solution (CIS), wherein native collagen is extracted from animal tissue in dilute aqueous acid, followed by digestion with an enzyme such as pepsin, trypsin, or Pronase.RTM.. The enzyme digestion removes the telopeptide portions of the collagen molecules, providing "atelopeptide" collagen in solution. The atelopeptide CIS so produced is substantially nonimmunogenic, and is also substantially non-cross-linked due to loss of the primary crosslinking regions. The CIS may then be precipitated by dialysis in a moderate shear environment to produce collagen fibers which resemble native collagen fibers. The precipitated, reconstituted fibers may additionally be crosslinked using a chemical agent (for example aldehydes such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde), or using heat or radiation. The resulting products are suitable for use in medical implants due to their biocompatability and reduced immunogenicity.
Wallace et al, U.S. Pat. No. 4,424,208, disclosed an improved collagen formulation suitable for use in soft tissue augmentation. Wallace's formulation comprises reconstituted fibrillar atelopeptide collagen (for example, Zyderm.RTM. collagen) in combination with particulate, crosslinked atelopeptide collagen dispersed in an aqueous medium. The addition of particulate crosslinked collagen improves the implant's persistence, or ability to resist shrinkage following implantation.
Smestad et al, U.S. Pat. No. 4,582,640, disclosed a glutaraldehyde crosslinked atelopeptide CIS preparation (GAX) suitable for use in medical implants. The collagen is crosslinked under conditions favoring intrafiber bonding rather than interfiber bonding, and provides a product with higher persistence than non-cross-linked atelopeptide collagen, and is commercially available from Collagen Corporation under the trademark Zyplast.RTM. Implant.
Nguyen et al, U.S. Pat. No. 4,642,117, disclosed a method for reducing the viscosity of atelopeptide CIS by mechanical shearing. Reconstituted collagen fibers are passed through a fine-mesh screen until viscosity is reduced to a practical level for injection.
Nathan et al, U.S. Pat. No. 4,563,350, disclosed osteoinductive bone repair compositions comprising an osteoinductive factor, at least 5% nonreconstituted (afibrillar) collagen, and the remainder reconstituted collagen and/or mineral powder (e.g., hydroxyapatite). CIS may be used for the nonreconstituted collagen, and Zyderm.RTM. collagen implant (ZCI) is preferred for the reconstituted collagen component. The material is implanted in bone defects or fractures to speed ingrowth of osteoclasts and promote new bone growth.
Chu, U.S. Pat. No. 4,557,764, disclosed a "second nucleation" collagen precipitate which exhibits a desirable malleability and putty-like consistency. Collagen is provided in solution (e.g., at 2-4 mg/mL), and a "first nucleation product" is precipitated by rapid titration and centrifugation. The remaining supernatant (containing the bulk of the original collagen) is then decanted and allowed to stand overnight. The precipitated second nucleation product is collected by centrifugation.
Chu, U.S. Pat. No. 4,689,399, disclosed a collagen membrane preparation, which is prepared by compressing and drying a collagen gel. The resulting product has high tensile strength.
J. A. M. Ramshaw et al, Anal Biochem (1984) 141:361-65, and PCT application WO87/04078 disclosed the precipitation of bovine collagen (types I, II, and III) from aqueous PEG solutions, where there is no binding between collagen and PEG.
Werner, U.S. Pat. No. 4,357,274, disclosed a method for improving the durability of sclero protein (e.g., brain meninges) by soaking the degreased tissue in H.sub.2 O.sub.2 or PEG for several hours prior to lyophilizing. The resulting modified whole tissue exhibits increased persistence.
Hiroyoshi, U.S. Pat. No. 4,678.468, disclosed the preparation of polysiloxane polymers having an interpenetrating network of water-soluble polymer dispersed within. The water-soluble polymer may be a collagen derivative, and the polymer may additionally include heparin. The polymers are shaped into artificial blood vessel grafts, and are designed to prevent clotting.
Other patents disclose the use of collagen preparations with bone fragments or minerals. For example, Miyata et al, U.S. Pat. No. 4,314,380 disclosed a bone implant prepared by baking animal bone segments, and soaking the baked segments in a solution of atelopeptide collagen. Deibig et al, U.S. Pat. No. 4,192,021 disclosed an implant material which comprises powdered calcium phosphate in a pasty formulation with a biodegradable polymer (which may be collagen). Commonly-owned copending U.S. patent application Ser No. 855,004, filed 22 Apr. 1986, disclosed a particularly effective bone repair material comprising autologous bone marrow, collagen, and particulate calcium phosphate in a solid, malleable formulation.
There are several references in the art to proteins modified by covalent conjugation to polymers, to alter the solubility, antigenicity and biological clearance of the protein. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,261,973 disclosed the conjugation of several allergans to PEG or PPG (polypropylene glycol) to reduce the proteins' immunogenicity. U.S. Pat. No. 4,301,144 disclosed the conjugation of hemoglobin with PEG and other polymers to increase the protein's oxygen carrying capability. EPO 98,110 disclosed coupling an enzyme or interferon to a polyoxyethylene-polyoxypropylene (POE-POP) block polymer increases the protein's halflife in serum. U.S. Pat. No. 4,179,337 disclosed conjugating hydrophilic enzymes and insulin to PEG or PPG to reduce immunogenicity. Davis et al, Lancet (1981) 2:281-83 disclosed the enzyme uricase modified by conjugation with PEG to provide uric acid metabolism in serum having a long halflife and low immunogenicity. Nishida et al, J Pharm Pharmacol (1984) 36:354-55 disclosed PEG-uricase conjugates administered orally to chickens, demonstrating decreased serum levels of uric acid. Inada et al, Biochem & Biophys Res Comm (1984) 122:845-50 disclosed lipoprotein lipase conjugation with PEG to render it soluble in organic solvents. Takahashi et al, Biochem & Biophys Res Comm (1984) 121:261-65 disclosed HRP conjugated with PEG to render the enzyme soluble in benzene. Abuchowski et al, Cancer Biochem Biophys (1984) 7:175-86 disclosed that enzymes such as asparaginase, catalase, uricase, arginase, trypsin, superoxide dismutase, adenosine deaminase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, and the like, conjugated with PEG exhibit longer half-lives in serum and decreased immunogenicity. However, these references are essentially concerned with modifying the solubility and biological characteristics of proteins administered in low concentrations in aqueous solution.
M. Chvapil et al, J Biomed Mater Res (1969) 3:315-32 disclosed a composition prepared from collagen sponge and a crosslinked ethylene glycol monomethacrylate-ethylene glycol dimethacrylate hydrogel. The collagen sponge was prepared by lyophilizing an aqueous mixture of bovine hide collagen and methylglyoxal (a tanning agent). The sponge-hydrogel composition was prepared by polymerizing ethylene glycol monomethacrylate and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate in the sponge.